Some goods and services may be lost, or reduced in diversity, quality and/or quantity, when a river system is impaired. The sustained use of a range of goods and services is therefore, directly dependent on the ecological health of the river. (The term "river health" simply refers to the condition of a river, in the same way as health would refer to the condition of a person or an economy). In order to protect our ability to use and benefit from river goods and services over the long term, we must look after the health of our rivers and their ability to provide these goods and services.

Why do we need this report?

Information about river health tells us about the range and quality of goods and services that a particular state of the river system can deliver. It also tells us about the sorts of impacts that a river system can absorb. This information helps us to manage our rivers because with an understanding of river health we can set goals and decide on action steps for achieving a desired river state that would ensure the provision of a preferred range and quality of goods and services. River health information collected over a period of time also allows us to track changes in river health and therefore our progress towards (or away from) a defined goal.

Why be involved?

Many aspects of our survival and economic growth are critically affected, directly or indirectly, by the health of our rivers and by the decisions that change their ability to deliver a range of goods and services. Therefore, the decisions around what we want and need from our rivers and the way we share the benefits, should be made jointly. In order to make informed decisions, we need appropriate and trusted information. It is in the field of river health monitoring and reporting that the River Health Programme contributes to informed decision-making in support of sound river management.

The Department of Water and Sanitation (DWAF) is the custodian of our country's water resources. This responsibility includes the protection of the ability of river ecosystems to continue to provide goods and services, and in doing so, to protect their use and associated benefits for current and future generations. As a result, DWAF initiated the River Health Programme (RHP) in 1994.

What is the objective of the RHP? This programme is designed to develop a capacity and information base to enable us to report on the ecological state of our rivers, in an objective and scientifically sound manner. At the same, through river health reporting, the programme aims to be explicit in identifying areas of sustainable utilisation and also to flag areas where deterioration of the river system is causing undesirable changes in the delivery of goods and services.

What does the RHP do? The programme generates information which is based on the assessment of the condition od biological communities in and around rivers (such as fish, aquatic invertebrates, riparian vegetation and river habitats). Together, they provide an integrated measure of the health of river systems.

A collaborative venture

The River Health Programme consists of partnerships that are critical for the success of the programme. At the national level, DWAF plays the lead role while the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) and the Water Research Commission (WRC) are key partners. RHP activities are co-ordinated at a provincial level where collaboration plays an important role. Each province has a network of implementers who work together, usually under the leadership of a Provincial Champion.

Through actively working together and sharing skills and resources, implementation teams can achieve goals that would not be possible for any one organisation working alone. The implementation team for KZN was elected at an open workshop in 1997. A cross-section of organisations have contributed since then, including the DWAf, the Town and Regional Planning Commission, Umgeni Water, The Umlaas Irrigation Board, Richards Bay Minerals, eThekwini Municipality, Mhlatuze Water, Universities of Zululand and Natal, KZN Wildlife, Farmer Support Group (Ntshogweni Catchment Project), CSIR and Alletson Ecologicals.

Legal Context of the RHP

The equitable, efficient and sustainable use of our water resources is the central objective of South Africa's water policy. The National Water Act (1998) recognises that the best way to achieve this would be to manage aquatic ecosystems (including rivers) at the catchment scale and through joint participation by all interested parties. The RHP supports this management process by providing river health information that will be needed by both managers and the participating public to make decisions.

Although the RHP is not specifically mandated by any South African act or parliament, RHP activities and outputs are strongly aligned with legal requirements: The Water Act requires that the health of aquatic ecosystems is monitored and the RHP monitoring results can in turn, be used to support certain legal principles contained in the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) and the National Water Act. For example, RHP results can be used to support evidence of environmental degradation. The law also requires that river protection measures should take into account the characteristics of in-stream and riparian vegetation as well as the characteristics and distribution of aquatic plants and animals.

Ecoregions are regions of broad ecological similarity. In other words, rivers that occur within a particular ecoregion will be more similar to each other than to rivers in other ecoregions. For example, the Midmar Dam resources unit in this report (p.14) is divided into two regions, an upper and lower. These are two distinct ecoregions. Variation in natural characteristics such as, climate, geology, physiography and vegetation as well as river habitat and the distribution of biota, was used to delineate the ecoregions. Because they present units of ecological similarity, ecoregions provide convenient boundaries within which to do ecological assessments and to set goals for an improved state of the river ecosystem.

The results that are obtained by applying the biological and habitat indices during a river survey provide the information for determining the health of the river. In order to standardise the output of the different indices as well as to allow comparison of the health of different river systems, a river health classification is used. Each index is calibrated so that its results can be expressed as a river health class.

River health classes can be expressed in terms of ecological and management perspectives.

Each of the river health classes is associated with a level of ecosystem health, and the potential to offer a particular range of goods and services. For example, a section of river in Natural Class may be most suitable for conservation and tourism, and even though it could be used for agriculture, the socio-economic returns on the latter activity might be much smaller compared to the conservation and tourism option. Similarly, a choice could be made whether to use a Good Class river as a source of drinking water, or for agriculture, or for tourism, or some combination of these. A river in the Fair Class may have lost its capacity to serve some of these potential users. An example may be a river that contains salt pollution as a result of providing service to industry. This river would no longer be ideal for use by agriculture, but this may be considered as acceptable from management point of view. In the Poor Class, a river's ability to provide a wide range of goods and services to a range of users is severely compromised. For example, while highly polluted river continues to provide a service to industry in getting rid of its waste, the detrimental effects of this pollution to others may be unacceptable.

Each one of our activities within a catchment, indirectly or directly drive changes in river health. It is only when we start to understand how our own and other's activities affect rivers and their ability to provide us with benefits, that we will be able to make wise and fair trade-offs around the mixture of impacts and benefits that will be acceptable to the catchment community.

In response to the need for improved environmental reporting, this State-of-Rivers (SoR) report, the third one of a series, is designed to

uMngeni catchment size:
441km², river length 225km from source to mouth;
uMsunduze catchment size:
875km², tributary length 115km
uMlazi catchment size:
970km², river length 172km
Mean annual precipitation (MAP):
uMngeni: 410 - 1 450mm
uMlazi: 410 - 1 100mm
Mean annual runoff (MAR):
uMngeni: 72 - 680mm
uMlazi: 72 - 173mm
Mean annual evaporation (MAE):
uMngeni: 1 360 - 2 040mm
uMlazi: 1 070 - 1 360mm

Rainfall strongly seasonal with > 80% falling between October and March.

The economic information here is based on the uMvoti to uMzimkulu Water Management Area (WMA), which includes the study area. The Gross Geographic Product (GGP) of the WMA was R26 billion in 1997 (nearly 15% of the SA GGP). The Durban and Pietermaritzburg magisterial districts contributed 57.5% and 11.7% to this figure respectively.

Current growth:
Largest contributors to GGP are manufacturing (e.g. metals, machinery, leather, food and paper), trade, government and finance.

Information was chosen deliberately. National guidelines require that we report on the present health, the drivers of present health and the actions we plan to perform in order to improve river health. But, the report also addresses river goods and services so that we are able to link the types of benefits we derive from rivers with changes to their ecological state, and the way in which we manage these.

Trout, being an alien predator, adds a new component to the aquatic ecosystem. The most obvious impact on the uMngeni resulting from trout angling has been the construction of more farm dams. Trout prey on indigenous animals but the impact appears to be minimal. Frogs are preyed on both as adults and as tadpoles although a large portion of the frog population is inaccessible to fish predators. The indigenous Natal mountain catfish is preyed on by trout but they occur in streams that are too small for trout and their cryptic lifestyle reduce their vulnerability. Crabs and aquatic insects are a notable item in the trout diet. Some species are more subject to predation than others, but anything more than a local reduction in abundance seems unlikely. In the uMngeni River, trout are nowhere present in large numbers and the measurable effect on invertebrate prey is likely to be minimal.

The presence of trout is the subject of an ongoing controversy as many feel that trout have no place in South African rivers.

The continued loss and degradation of uMngeni wetlands is serious given their positive impact on river health by purifying water, controlling erosion and regulating water flow through the catchment.

Forestry companies in the area are contributing to wetland restoration by removing exotic forest trees planted within wetland areas in the catchment.

As is the case in many parts of South Africa, the uMngeni River catchment is subject to wide fluctuations in flow, ranging from crippling droughts to raging floods over the space of a few years. The last twenty years have seen these in extreme proportions, with two of the most severe droughts in recorded history (early 1980s and 1990s) interspersed by two extreme floods, cyclone Domoina in 1984 and the September 1987 floods. The latter had the greatest impact on the uMngeni River.

Management of the uMngeni River becomes difficult as it must balance the needs of society for a constant flow of water, with the needs of the environment which requires that some of the variability of the system be maintained.

uMsunduze Catchment

Dusi below N3 near Woodhouse

Unfortunately the event is threatened by faecal contamination and by water hyacinth choking the river near the estuary.

In the early 1990s Inanda Dam became a mass of noxious algae, largely due to the rotting vegetation and humus layer drowned by the rising waters. Since then the dam has stabilised and water quality has improved mainly due to upgrades by Umgeni Water at Darvill Wastewater works, that reduced the nutrient load from Pietermaritzburg.

Shongweni Dam (in the neighbouring uMlazi catchment) has also had severe problems, with the main cause being excessive nutrient inputs from Hammarsdale and Mpumalanga. Blooms of, at times toxic, blue-green algae have been common, making this dam unsuitable for domestic water supplies, and of questionable quality for recreation purposes.

Despite human impacts, the uMngeni remains an important estuary. The remaining 44ha of Beachwood mangroves in the estuary support a wide diversity of plants and animals. Studies in the early 1980s recorded 56 fish species, 13 prawn species and 11 crab species. The estuary also provides habitat for juvenile marine fish. The uMngeni estuary also provides a variety of recreational opportunities. But, the uMngeni River will need to be managed carefully in order to maintain a desirable level of benefits from the estuary.

Owing to the range of materials being transported and used almost every kind of pollution threat is possible. Hydrocarbons, pesticides, heavy metal compounds, acids, alkalis have all been transported in quantity through these catchments. Substances such as salt, sugar, vegetable oil, molasses and milk, are not toxic in small amounts, but if tons of these materials end up in rivers, serious environmental damage can and does occur.

Effective response protocols have been developed and the expertise to respond to spills is well developed. However, clear understanding of the threat by industrial producers and catchment residents is still lacking.

Although the biological control agents are thriving, because of the high nutrient levels and the rapid growth of the plants they have not been able to reduce the weed population effectively. According to the Hammarsdale Industrial Conservancy, the plan is to use herbicides to kill the plants so that the dam can be used by the people of Hammarsdale.

Msinsi Holdings have achieved some success in combating hyacinth in Shongweni Dam using chemical control in a zero tolerance procedure. However, because of reinfestation from Hammarsdale upstream, they require ongoing management. There is also a massive infestation in the lower uMlazi River as it enters Durban, to the extent that at times the river disappears under a green blanket.

A large dam - Inanda

Problems include:

Dams affect the goods and services delivered by rivers, especially to people who depend on products that are directly associated with the river ecosystem. Fortunately, these impacts can be managed by releasing water from dams in a way that is compatible with downstream needs. Plans are afoot to investigate this for the uMngeni River.

More than 12% of the uMngeni and uMlazi catchments is formally or informally urbanised and we can expect this trend to increase in future. An urban setting and high population numbers and densities create a particular set of challenges for river health and this in turn affects the types, amount and quality of river benefits.

Cholera is water-borne bacterial infection associated with a lack of good quality drinking water and sanitation. Although the fatality rate was low (< 0.4%) during the 2000/01 cholera epidemic, KZN reported 116 170 cases. During the epidemic, municipal water was safe, but people relying on drinking water directly from rivers and dams were especially vulnerable.

riverbream
longspine glassy
Natal mountain catfish
African mottled eel
Madagascar mottled eel
longfin eel
Natal topminnow
freshwater goby
chubbyhead barb
redtail barb
straightfin barb
bowstripe barb
duckbill sleeper
goldfish
sharptooth catfish
grass carp
carp
dusky sleeper
blackthroat goby
tropical sand-goby
mosquitofish
estuarine roundherring
sleepy goby
river goby
tank goby
golden sleeper
scaly/KZN yellowfish
bluegill
river snapper
opossum pipefish
freshwater pipefish
smallmouth bass
spotted bass
largemouth bass
Natal moony
Cape moony
flathead mullet
freshwater mullet
rainbow trout
Mozambique tilapia
guppy
southern mouthbrooder
checked goby
brown trout
bearded eelgoby
redbreast tilapia
banded tilapia
swordtail

Acanthopagrus berda
Ambassis productus
Amphilius natalensis
Anguilla bengalensis labiata
Anguilla marmorata
Anguilla Mossambica
Aplocheilichthys myaposae
Awaous aeneofuscus
Barbus anoplus
Barbus gurneyi
Barbus paludinosus
Barbus viviporus
Butis butis
Carassius auratus #
Clarias gariepinus
Ctenopharyngodon idella #
Cyprinus carpio #
Eleotris fusca
Favonigobius melanobrachus
Favonigobius reichei
Gambusia affinis #
Gilchristella aestuaria
Glossogobius biocellatus
Glossogobius callidus
Glossogobius giuris
Hypseleotris cyprinoides
Labeobarbus natalensis
Lepomis macrochirus #
Lutjanus argentimaculatus
Microphis brachyurus
Microphis fluviatilis
Micropterus dolomieu #
Micropterus punctulatus #
Micropterus salmoides #
Monodactylus argenteus
Monodactylus falciformis
Mugil cephalus
Myxus capensis
Oncorhynchus mykiss #
Oreochromis mossambicus
Poecilia reticulata #
Pseudocrenilabrus philander
Redigobius dewaali
Salmo trutta #
Taenioides jacksoni
Tilapia rendalli
Tilapia sparrmanii
Xiphophorus helleri #

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FW/estuarine Red Data

Exotic fish populations abound and in some cases threaten indigenous fish populations. Fortunately most of the exotic fish are best suited to living in the dams in the region where their impact cannot be considered to be serious. Bass in particular are voracious predators in dams and sometimes in rivers. Trout also thrive in the dams and upper reaches of the uMngeni River where their impact is varied and the subject of controversy (see section on Trout in the upper uMngeni River in the Midmar Resource Unit).

Trout angling is popular in the headwaters and has been since around 1895 when the first trout hatchery was built near Balgowan. Midmar Dam catches include barbel, carp and the KZN yellowfish during spring.

Blue Lagoon, with its additional saltwater species, was historically a hive of fishing activity, but deterioration in river health and siltation of the estuary led to a decline in the angling. Recently, however, the estuary has seen a resurgence in angling popularity. Light tackle anglers in particular are now common here and catch a variety of species such as kingfish, springer, and gurnards. These are all marine fish but hopefully this indicates that the estuary is once again becoming a nursery for many fish species.

Earlier knowledge of the uMngeni River in the upper parts of the catchment is limited, other than from incidental reference made in various texts. Because of the development of Pietermaritzburg, some information on the uMsunduze is available mostly in the form of old photographs. There is considerably more information about the river estuary and its relation to Durban Bay, as this was an important resource for the settlers in the early 1800s.

Information on the meanderings of the uMngeni estuary is confusing and scant. It appears that the position of the estuary has changed repeatedly, moving not only north and south along the coast, but at times the uMngeni River flowed directly into Durban Bay.

Russel (1899) noted that the name uMngeni means "River of Entrance" because the ancient uMngeni flowed into Durban Bay via a low-lying area known as "Eastern Vlei". But, a map of Durban drawn by Lt. King in 1823 shows the river clearly entering the sea in approximately its current position, with little sign of a pathway to the Bay.

A 1909 Mercury Pictorial (9th September) reported that the estuary had marched "three miles" from its present position towards Durban. Concern was expressed and the estuary was manually redirected towards its current position. This probably happened repeatedly.

From and old account written in the late 1600s, the author describes what is now Durban where the mouth of the river is clearly the Bay itself: "Neither is there any want of water, for every hill affords little brooks, which glide down several ways, some of which meet by degrees, which make up the river of Natal (uMngeni River), which dischargeth itself into the East Indian ocean, in latitude 30 S, where it opens pretty wide, and is deep enough for small ships. But at the mouth of the river is a bar, which has not above 10 or 11 feet of water on it in a spring tide, though within there is water enough. This river is the principal of the country of Natal, and has lately been frequented by some of our ships, particularly by a small ship that Captain Rogers owned. (Dampier's Voyages - British Museum - repeated in Bird 1888).

Accordingly to Hattersley (1936) who described Durban in the 1800s: "Then as now, the beach (in Durban Bay) was the centre of amusement. The boys fishing for eels in the big pond, formed in the "dip" in West Street by the stream which originally connected the Umgeni with the bay, provided favourite sport in the days before building operations covered the swampy ground (today the dip in West St is between Field St and Gardiner St). At low spring tide, it was very nearly possible to walk on dry sand across to the Bluff, and the channels could be easily waded by those who did not fear sharks. North of the Point, the little-used ocean beach swarmed with white crabs." Hattersley, MA (1936) .

Cooper & Mason (1987) say the following of the meandering estuary: "?the uMngeni flowed southward between the Berea Ridge and a line of coastal dunes before discharging into Natal Bay. This former course is marked by thick estuarine deposits beneath Durban and is visible on satellite images of the Natal coast. In a chart of 1860 this former course of the uMngeni is marked by a series of marshes."

In 1856 a great flood laid waste the Springfield Estate along the Umgeni, which had grown the first Natal-grown sugar for sale on the Durban market. (Hattersley 1936)

Descriptions of Durban Bay

Following is an extract from a dispatch from Commander Simon van der Stel (1690) - reporting on the search by the ship de Noord for the sailors from the wrecked ship Stavenisse. When they got to the Bay of Natal they found some of the crew of the Stavenisse. The report describes the Bay as follows: "There are many dense forests with short-stemmed trees; but at the bay of Natal are two forests, full a "mijl" square, with tall, straight and thick trees, fit for house or ship timber, in which is abundance of honey and wax: but no wax is to be had from the natives as they eat the wax as well as the honey. ...In the rivers are eels and congers, and in the bay of Natal king's fish and sun-fish, besides all kinds of fish known in India and here, as may be further seen from the annexed account taken down from the mouths of our men." (in Bird, 1888)

Thomas Green was an immigrant to Natal in 1843 and wrote the following description of his arrival in Durban.(in Hattersley, 1936).

The town that became Durban developed on the flat plain at the base of the Berea. The scant vegetation rapidly became a mass of loose blown sand, which drove the inhabitants to distraction. The Anglican Bishop of Natal, Bishop Colenso wrote the following account of the drinking water in the town: "A greater evil in Durban is the water, which is taken usually from wells, that are not sunk deep enough, and consequently abound with decaying vegetable, if not animal matter, and innumerable animalcules and worms?..At present, the remedy is to drink rain water, or the water of the Umgeni River, which is brought by carriers a distance of four miles and is excellent. Indeed, had the Dutch founded the town of Durban, as they did that of Maritzburg, they would long ago have had the Umgeni pouring its beneficent streams through every street, and bringing health and cleanliness to every door. How long will it be before the public spirit of Englishmen will achieve this?" (Durban's water supply was not materially improved until HW Currie sunk a well in 1879 (Curries Fountain) in the vicinity of the present Botanic Garden). Bishop JW Colenso (1854) in Hattersley (1936)

Alfred Delegorgue describes going on a hippo hunt in the Seekoei Vlei, now dominated by the N2 road, sewage works and a new garage development. All that remains of what was the scene described below, are some reeds and a small polluted lake. The rest of the area is drained by a system of canals. "After we had crossed the sandy bed and forded the beautiful river (the uMngeni), another challenge faced us in the guise of a steep and difficult ascent on the other side. Without benefit of roads, we reached the summit of this hill and then skidded down towards a pretty peninsula surrounded by a deep lake, where the large heads of hippopotamus could be seen here and there on the surface of the water?.we pitched our tent on the inviting green promontory ? the slope was so gentle, the grass so short, the top of the little hill so well placed between the crocodiles and hippopotamus ?. Mosquitoes attacked us in their millions, finding their way under our bed clothes which gave no protection, invading our noses, our ears, our eyebrows and our beards." (1848 - Delegorgue).

The town of Pietermaritzburg was distinguished in the early 1840s by the furrows of flowing water that carried water from the Little Bushmans River (the 'Dorpspruit' which carried the same name as uMsunduze) down the length of all of the streets .The water was abstracted from a point just below the entrance to the Botanical gardens to a point at the top of Longmarket St for a period of 40 years (Meineke and Summers, 1983). Each property owner was responsible for maintaining the furrow past his/her property, and the custom was to draw water into barrels in the early morning of each day, when water quality was likely to be at its best. This water provided an important service to the citizens, even though pedestrians occasionally fell into them by accident at night! Crabs abounded in these furrows, to the delight of the town's children. Syringa trees were originally planted to indicate the boundaries of the streets, and after all these years have become an invasive problem.

The furrows were converted into a piped supply in 1881 and in time, the waters of the Dorpspruit became insufficient to provide for the growing town. Catchment management in the Dorpspruit became an issue in 1887 when the reservoir caretaker was appointed to protect the water supply via protection of the vegetation. Water was also taken from the Town Bush stream where in 1901 a water treatment plant was built at the confluence with the Chase Valley Stream. The first water was pumped from the uMsunduze in 1903 and by the following year sights were set on the tributaries in the Henley area, which provided water into a pipeline. It was only in 1924 that a dam was built on the uMsindusaan River. This dam collapsed in the year of completion, but was rebuilt within a few years (1927). Henley dam was then built on the main uMsunduze and was completed in 1943.

Pietermartzburg's first sewer discharge in1863 was into the uMsunduze below old jail in Burger St. This created water quality problems within the town until a main was installed in 1905 to carry the sewage to below the town.

The uMsunduze River was the venue for most swimming activities in Pietermaritzburg. Each February the annual swimming gala was held, including a race of 300m part of which was swum upstream. In 1896 the event was interrupted by a sudden spate that washed away the officials' raft and the military marquee on the banks, table, chairs and all.

A severe drought in Pietermaritzburg (489mm rain - 53% of average) during 1931 coupled to the great Depression, was accompanied by an outbreak of malaria that moved inland from the coast.

In 1875 the uMsunduze in Alexandra Park was shaded by large weeping willows (Hattersley, 1936). Bishop Colenso noted in 1854 that the willow trees were only eight to ten years old, and were already "very fine in their growth".

The pictures of the footbridge just below Chapel St crossing to Alexandra Park (above) give an interesting insight into the changes in vegetation that have taken place over the years. Note how the banks of the river have overgrown with exotic trees, resulting in the destabilisation of the soil and subsequent incision of the river deeper into the ground.

"At the bottom of the town was very good snipe shooting, in the "vlei" - a marsh. Piet Otto, lived in his farm 14 miles from headquarters, and possessed 17 000 acres of fenced land (now Otto's bluff). The Umgeni River ran through the farm, very deep in some places. He allowed me to shoot where I liked on condition that I did not shoot his pet hippos. There were seven; but one year he had a contract to supply the troops with forage. I got a note sent express, saying "for goodness' sake come and help kill the sea cows, they are destroying my forage and I cannot carry out my contract". ?Eventually all but two were shot; these two had enough of it and went away to pastures new. GA Lucas, (in Hattersley 1936)

"In the early days of the town, game was very plentiful in the neighbourhood, and besides this, there were lots of leopards and hyenas. The latter frequently prowled about the town.."
Pistorius, CW. 1845. (in C. Bird papers)

"Our shooting ground consisted of all the land in sight of the city, including all the town lands, which supplied us with riet buck, oribi, duiker and paauw. Fox Hill was named by myself and others, who at times got up a scratch pack of dogs, immaterial what breed so long as they gave us a run, after jackal."
JW Shepstone (in Hattersley, 1936).

Pietermaritzburg in the 1800s was not the green vista that it is today. One early description noted "the country around Pietermaritzburg is almost entirely destitute of wood, except in some of the mountain kloofs, giving the whole neighbourhood a wild, yet monotonous appearance." This can be seen in many paintings and photographs of the old city.

Upper uMngeni River

Only old photographs exist to show how the uMngeni River has changed over the years. A series of pictures of Albert Falls (see above) illustrates how development has changed the river environment from an extensive grassland area with grassy riparian vegetation, to one covered with thick woody vegetation, some indigenous and some exotic, a dam and railway line . The area has little resemblance to the original scene, which will today be reflected in the much altered river ecology.

Red duiker
Southern reed buck
Leopard
Buffalo
Lion
Elephants in herds of more than 1000
Enormous swarms of locusts

Cato Ridge
Lions on the upper uMlazi (Cato Ridge area) - with innumerable bugs which prevented sleep
Glossy ibis near Cato Ridge

The Zulu people acknowledge water spirits including the river snake, the 'snake of the waters that gives life'. This belief system unites people, both the living and the dead, with natural forces, the non-human spirit world and the supreme deities. The ideal pool for ceremonies involving the river snake (e.g. diviner submergence) contains 'living water', and usually is below a waterfall where the water is turbulent and deep.

In some areas of KZN it is believed that the heavenly princess, iNkosazana has rest days where she needs to have the river to herself. Accordingly the use of the river on her day - lesuku leNkosazana (Mondays and Saturdays), is strictly prohibited.

In the uMlazi River, river ceremonies are conducted several times a year by about 78% of the Salem community. These include:

Besides bathing, ceremonial use of the river is its most common use, with the supply of building materials, recreation and clothes washing being of lesser importance.

A degraded river reduces the acceptability of the river for ceremonial purposes. Almost all of the people in Salem acknowledge that respect for the river and its attributes for cultural and religious ceremonies are diminishing.

Bird, J (1888) The Annals of Natal 1495 - 1845. P.Davis & Sons, Pietermaritzburg.

Delegorgue, A (1848) Travels in Southern Africa. Published 1990, University of Natal Press. Volumes 1&2.

Brand, PAJ, Kemp, PH, Pretorius, SJ ad Schoonbee,HJ (1967) Water Quality and Abatement of Pollution in Natal Rivers. National Institute for Water Research, CSIR, Pretoria, and the Natal Town and Regional Planning Commission, Pietermaritzburg. Volume 13.

Hattersley, AF (1936) More Annals of Natal. Shuter and Shooter, Pietermaritzburg.

Meineke, EN and Summers GM (1983) Municipal Engineering in Pietermaritzburg for the first hundred years. City Engineers Department, Pietermaritzburg.

Russel, G (1899) The History of Old Durban and reminiscences of an emigrant of 1850. Durban: P.Davis & Sons. 512p

Schoonbee, HJ (1964) A hydrobiological investigation of the Umgeni River system, Natal and its bearing on the ecological interpretation of fuanal communities in South African rivers. National Institute for Water Research, CSIR, Pretoria Volumes 1-3.

Schoonbee, HJ (1963) Pollution studies in the Umgeni Basin (Natal). National Institute for Water Research, CSIR, Pretoria, Volumes 1-3.

Wahlberg, JA (1838 - 1856) Travel Journals (and some letters) South African and Namibia/Botswana. Published 1994, Van Riebeeck Society, Cape Town.